How does bicultural experience inform design and media?

Abstract

This dissertation discusses the complexities of biculturalism and how it offers a wealth of perspectives that can transform art and media. Biculturalism intertwines culture, language and artistic dimensions, shaping identities and evoking creative expressions. In a globalised world, design and media must adapt to resonate and represent bicultural communities.

This paper examines biculturalism through a diverse lens, discussing personal narratives, artistic contributions, psychological insights and cultural theories, showcasing its profound impact on individuals and wider communities. It explores how these experiences shape practitioners' work, and how this cultural hybridity inspires innovation and encourages dialogue within design and media.

The anthology Half and Half (O'Hearn. C,1998) captures intimate narratives, offering insights into different perspectives on identity and attitudes towards culture. The stories narrate difficult identity negotiations, addressing themes of belonging as well as strong emotions and cultural hybridity.

Arwa Abouon's photography celebrates her identity through blending Islamic and Western imagery to challenge stereotypes. Through exhibiting in the Western world, she creates dialogue between cultures through expressing her individual experience of religion and culture. Similarly, in the context of post-war Britain, Art in Exile - Polish Painters in Post-War Britain by Douglas Hall, and the biography of Henryk Gotlib, illuminates the experiences of the Polish artists who successfully integrated into the British art scene and bridged the cultural gap through merging Polish artistic traditions with British art scenes and compositions. The Ben Uri Research Unit's From Adler to Żuławski: A Century of Polish Artists in Britain contextualises these stories within broader waves of global migration, examining the impact of historical immigration patterns on artistic innovation.

The pioneering Japanese artist Kanae Yamamoto displays creative innovation through fusing traditional Japanese printmaking with Western philosophies of individual expression and Russian peasant art. His cross-cultural exchange fostered creative evolution in Japan, bringing the themes of working-class individuals into the art scene.

In the cinematic world, works like Paul Mazursky's Hudson in the Moscow and Joel Zwick's My Big Fat Greek Wedding, explore themes of biculturalism through humour, as they narrate stories of conflict and isolation caused by the struggles of adaptation in multicultural environments.

Psychological studies give further insight into mental health and identity. Schwartz et al., (2019) defines how the imbalance of identity forms conflicting emotions and emphasises the importance of integrating the two cultures together to enhance well-being. Similarly, Katarzyna Zechenter's article Bilingual and Bicultural (2017) explores the cognitive and emotional benefits of bilingualism, aligning with Benjamin Whorf's pioneering work on the relationship between language and thought. Whorf's theories suggest that language shapes perception, outlining that bicultural individuals can gain more insight and perspectives from studying multiple languages.

This paper thus explores the dynamics of biculturalism and discusses it from complex perspectives

Introduction

Biculturalism refers to the practice of identifying with, or representing, two different cultures. The interchange between two distinct cultural identities within an individual or community offers diverse and unique perspectives, through which art and media can be made and interpreted. In an increasingly globalised world, which emphasises the need for cultural exchanges, design and media must adapt to represent, and be accessible to, communities that have bicultural backgrounds.

Bicultural individuals often struggle with cultural alienation, stereotyping, and the pressure to meet the expectations of one or both cultures. This dissertation discusses how bicultural experiences inform creative practitioner's work and design choices, showcasing how lived experiences translate into creativity and examine how they create dialogue to share their narrative. It aims to contribute deeper understanding on why cultural hybridity should inform innovative design and encourage dialogue about this niche topic. By exploring cultural hybridity, identity conflict, and the harmony of influences, the study aims to highlight the potential for biculturalism to challenge existing norms and inspire new directions in creative practice

Contextual Review

Biculturalism is a multifaceted phenomenon, encompassing identity, language, and cultural representation. People often move to foreign countries in pursuit of economic opportunities, greater freedoms, and an improved quality of life. Increases in immigration and the influx of refugees escaping war and oppression explain why millions of individuals today identify as bicultural.

In 2022, according to the Migration Observatory at the University of Oxford, foreign-born individuals made up 14% of the UK population, compared to 9% in 2004. Immigration in the year ending June 2024 (including British citizens) reached 1,207,000, according to ONS's experimental estimates. These figures highlight a significant demographic shift with substantial economic implications, especially when one considers the composition of the incoming population.

However, the skills and qualifications of migrants are even more significant than the statistics alone. Analysis by the Migration Observatory of the Annual Population 2022 Secure Lab data shows a marked difference between EU and non-EU migrants. Specifically, 42% (1,463,904 out of 3,487,084) of EU migrants came to the UK for employment reasons, compared to just 22% (1,412,301 out of 6,495,079) of non-EU migrants. This divergence influences the UK's cultural landscape. For instance, immigration is not evenly distributed across the country. London, for example, thrives on cultural influence and diversity, with over 40% of its residents born abroad (Migration Observatory). The impact of such diversity can be seen in the transformation of local environments, such as the proliferation of foreign-owned shops and businesses, which signal how migrant communities embed themselves within British society.

Historically, waves of immigration have often been driven by economic instability or armed conflict. One poignant example is the influx of Polish refugees following the outbreak of the Second World War. From Adler to Żuławski: A Century of Polish Artists in Britain (2021), by the Ben Uri Research Unit, explores the lives and works of émigré artists like George Him. The text sheds light on the challenges these individuals faced, beyond the immediate losses of war. Polish-Jewish artists were perceived as "real outsiders," due to both antisemitism and their status as "a minority within two other minorities," making their integration into British society even more difficult. Despite originating from the same country, Polish-Jews often found themselves divided from fellow Poles due to language barriers. Uprooted from their homes, separated from loved ones, and thrust into a country whose language they did not speak, these refugees endured both emotional and financial hardship, along with a significant loss of social status.

As a response to such alienation, Polish communities began to take shape, forming supportive networks to mitigate the sense of isolation. While these networks helped displaced Poles feel more at home, they also stirred anxiety among local populations, who perceived the growing Polish presence as a threat. This climate of suspicion fueled hostilities and reinforced negative stereotypes, revealing how cultural clashes can deepen social divides. These insights highlight the crucial role of language in bridging cultural differences, as linguistic disconnection remains a significant barrier to integration and mutual understanding.

This historical context illustrates the potential of design as a tool for communication and conflict resolution between communities lacking shared language or cultural frameworks. Regardless of differing attitudes toward mass immigration, the similarities between post-war Britain and present-day immigration trends reinforce the idea that cultural exchange is a persistent and evolving reality to which society must adapt.

Douglas Hall's Art in Exile - Polish Painters in Post-War Britain (2008) further illuminates the experiences of Polish artists who fled during the war and were largely overlooked by British art historians. Hall aims to highlight their contributions to, and struggles within, the British art scene. In the chapter "Adapting to Exile," he discusses Henryk Gotlib, a prominent member of the Polish avant-garde Formist movement, who found himself stranded in England in April 1939 due to the outbreak of war.

Gotlib successfully integrated into the British art scene and made significant contributions to modern British art. By participating in numerous exhibitions across the UK, he showcased his distinctive style and influenced many British-born artists. His work merged Polish expressionism with British themes, blending cultural influences to create a unique aesthetic. One notable example is Still Life with Fruit and a Red Flower, an oil painting that reflects the intense colour and abstraction of Polish Formism, while also aligning with British still-life traditions seen in works such as Still Life by a Window (Pickard, 1916). Gotlib's collaborations and showcases enriched the local art scene, illustrating how bicultural experiences can fuel creativity, innovation, and cross-cultural dialogue in design.

His life and practice exemplify the harmonious integration of dual cultural identities through art.

Gotlib, H. (n.d.) Still Life with Fruit and a Red Flower. [Oil on canvas]. Private collection. Available at: https://artyzm.com/e_obraz.php?id=4872 (Accessed: 25 January 2025)

Pickard, L. (1916). Still Life by a Window. [Oil on canvas]. Tate Collection. Available at: https://www.tate.org.uk/art/artworks/pickard-still-life-by-a-window-n05347 (Accessed: 25 January 2025)

A central element of biculturalism lies in linguistic ability and the cognitive influence of dual-cultural upbringing. The social and cognitive benefits of biculturalism include enhanced creativity, problem-solving abilities, and increased social adaptability. As language is the primary vehicle of communication, its role in design and cultural interpretation is critical. Understanding how bicultural individuals navigate language allows for more effective communication and the development of practical, inclusive design solutions. Zechenter (2017), in Bilingual and Bicultural, advocates for parents to speak Polish to their children from birth to foster bilingualism. She outlines numerous benefits to language inheritance: social, emotional, educational, financial, and even medical. Bilingual individuals can shift their cognitive processes depending on the language they use, gaining access to multiple viewpoints. Goethe's observation, "He who does not know foreign languages knows nothing about his own" (Maximen und Reflexionen, 1821), reinforces the idea that linguistic diversity deepens one's understanding of their native language and culture. This comparative awareness allows designers to better identify cultural biases and produce more inclusive and impactful visual communication.

Linguist Benjamin Whorf argued that language shapes thought, with cultural differences influencing perception and decision-making. Mykhailyuk and Pohlod (2015) affirm this in their study of multilingual individuals, observing that language choice directly affects perspective. For instance, in gendered languages, objects may be perceived differently. German speakers (for whom "key" is masculine) described it as "hard" and "metallic," whereas Spanish speakers (for whom "key" is feminine) described it as "intricate" and "golden." Similarly, Barrett et al. (2007) explored how language influences emotional framing, which is deeply rooted in cultural norms. In design, understanding such linguistic and cultural dynamics adds meaningful context to visual messages and improves user engagement.

Design, like language, is a powerful mode of communication. Designers who are fluent in multiple "design languages"-be they cultural, technological, or disciplinary-are better able to reach diverse audiences. This broadened perspective fosters adaptability, inclusivity, and resonance in their work. Bicultural individuals, with their dual cultural viewpoints, provide valuable insights into how visual and linguistic elements intersect. However, complexity arises from the unpredictable influence of cultural lenses on interpretation. Designers must therefore be mindful of these factors to ensure clear and effective communication.

Schwartz et al. (2019), in The Biculturalism Dynamics: A Daily Diary Study of Bicultural Identity and Psychosocial Functioning, examine two models of bicultural identity: Bicultural Identity Integration (BII) and cultural hybridisation/alternation. The BII framework measures whether an individual perceives their cultural identities as compatible or in conflict. Their study found that daily fluctuations in BII, often shaped by external factors, can significantly affect well-being. Behaviours such as code-switching, inventing hybrid terms, or blending cultural traditions exemplify the ways individuals navigate their hybrid identities.

Half and Half, an anthology edited by Claudine Chiawei O'Hearn, provides deeply personal accounts of bicultural life. In the chapter "Lost in Place," Garret Hongo reflects on his move from culturally diverse Hawaii to a predominantly white community in Oregon. He recounts feelings of racial isolation, expressing concern that his children would not experience the same rich cultural environment he once did. Describing himself as a "magpie" amidst Hawaii's diversity, he articulates the toll of standing out in an environment where "being different wears you down."

In contrast, Danzy Senna shares a different experience. She rejects the notion of "mulatto pride" and chooses to identify solely as Black, highlighting a collective Black history rather than a mixed identity. She recounts facing racism during her upbringing and critiques Time magazine's 1993 cover story "The New Face of America," which depicted a computer-generated, ethnically ambiguous woman. According to Senna, this portrayal reduces mixed-race identity to an idealised symbol of the future, disregarding real lived experiences.

TIME magazine (1993). The New Face of America. [Magazine] Time. Available at: https://content.time.com/time/covers/0,16641,19931118,00.html (Accessed: 25 January 2025).

Senna's perspective underscores the emotional and social complexities of bicultural identity, particularly when external media representations distort or oversimplify individual realities. Her narrative-and others in the anthology-demonstrate the extent to which external environments shape how people perceive and express their cultural identities.

The Time magazine cover mentioned earlier exemplifies the problematic consequences of poorly considered design. By manipulating various female facial features to depict a racially ambiguous "average," the image fails to represent actual bicultural individuals, instead reinforcing binary racial categories. As Senna argues, such portrayals erase the nuanced experiences of people of mixed heritage. Given the powerful influence of mass media, designers bear responsibility for ensuring that representations of multiculturalism are accurate and respectful. Conscious, inclusive design is essential in shaping how audiences perceive the world and each other.

The Influence of Culture Theories

Stuart Hall, a cultural theorist, sociologist, and public intellectual, laid foundational frameworks for understanding identity and biculturalism in design. As one of the founding figures in cultural studies, Hall drew upon both mediated and lived experience to explore how culture shapes and reshapes identity. He once described himself as "part Scottish, part African, part Portuguese-Jewish," acknowledging the multiple influences that informed his identity. From his colonial Jamaican upbringing to his diasporic experience upon arriving in England in 1951 as part of the Windrush generation, Hall's personal narrative epitomised the complexities of cultural hybridity.

Hall fundamentally challenged the notion of a fixed identity, instead arguing that identity is a dynamic, continuous process-one of 'becoming' rather than simply 'being'. In Cultural Identity and Diaspora (1990), he identifies two main approaches to cultural identity. The first is the essentialist perspective, which views identity as fixed, rooted in a shared essence or 'true self' common to all members of a cultural group. This perspective emphasises unity grounded in collective history. Hall acknowledged its value, particularly in contexts of oppression, where reclaiming a unified identity empowers marginalised groups. He writes: "Our cultural identities reflect the common historical experiences and shared cultural codes which provide us, as 'one people,' with stable, unchanging and continuous frames of reference and meaning" (Hall, 1990).

Such collective identity offers pride, resilience, and a sense of belonging, especially when confronting the alienation caused by colonial trauma or cultural erasure. However, Hall also warned of the limitations of essentialism. While it can be strategically empowering, it risks oversimplifying identity, ignoring the hybridity and internal diversity of diasporic communities. In extreme cases, it may even marginalise those who deviate from dominant group narratives. Hence, essentialism should be understood as a tool rather than a truth.

The second approach, the constructivist perspective, views identity as fluid-constructed through historical, cultural, and social processes. It embraces the fragmented, hybrid, and evolving nature of diasporic identities, shaped both by shared heritage and by continual negotiation in new cultural contexts. Hall describes the past as a "shared history" that anchors identity, but stresses that identity must be continually reimagined to respond to the present. This duality challenges rigid notions of nationalism and promotes inclusive, pluralistic frameworks for engaging with cultural difference.

This complexity is mirrored in the lives of bicultural individuals who often balance cultural heritage with the need to navigate different social landscapes. For instance, artist Arwa Abouon explores her Muslim identity through personal and symbolic garment choices in her photography. Her work, while rooted in Islamic tradition, diverges from stereotypical portrayals seen in mass media. Displayed in Canadian and British galleries, her pieces bridge Eastern and Western cultures-asserting her religious identity while adapting it to the cultural spaces she inhabits.

Abouon, A. (2004,2006). Untitled, The Generation Series [Photographic Prints]. Private collection. Available at: https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Arwa-Abouon-Untitled-The-Generation-Series-Mother-Daughter-2004-2006-photographic_fig1_254936018 (Accessed: 25 January 2025).

Stuart Hall also proposed the Reception Theory, which examines how audiences interpret media messages. He argued that media is encoded with meaning by producers, yet audiences decode that meaning based on their cultural background, ideology, and socio-economic status. Producers use design elements such as lighting (to convey emotion), typography (to establish tone), and clothing (to signify character roles) to encode messages. Yet, how these messages are received can vary widely.

Hall identified three ways in which media messages are decoded: the dominant reading, where the audience accepts the intended message; the negotiated reading, where the message is understood but reinterpreted to align with the viewer's values; and the oppositional reading, where the viewer understands the message but rejects it due to ideological or cultural differences. This theory highlights the subjective nature of interpretation and underscores the importance of cultural awareness in design.

A pertinent example is the controversial cover of Time Magazine (1993) titled "The New Face of America." While the intent was to celebrate biculturalism and shifting demographics, it was criticised by writer Danzy Senna for erasing the complexity of mixed identities. The image-depicting a digitally generated white-passing woman-was decoded by Senna as a problematic erasure of authentic multicultural representation. Rather than celebrating diversity, it arguably perpetuates a monocultural aesthetic disguised as inclusion.

Where Reception Theory focuses on how meaning is interpreted, Representation Theory asks who constructs these meanings-and why. Hall argued that nothing has a fixed meaning until it is represented. Designers and producers act as "meaning makers" who have the power to influence perception by choosing what and how something is portrayed. Media producers can distort or amplify certain realities, making their role inherently political.

Representation Theory, developed more fully in 1997, became particularly relevant in the pre-digital age when mass media such as television had unrivalled influence. In the UK during Hall's time, only a handful of television channels (BBC One, BBC Two, and ITV) dominated the media landscape. This limited plurality gave media producers significant control over public perception. Although today's media environment is more decentralised and interactive, dominant narratives still shape public opinion-especially when viewers lack firsthand experience of the communities or cultures represented.

The power of representation becomes evident when considering the underrepresentation of minorities in contemporary media. Despite some progress since the 1970s, hegemonic elites-often portrayed as white males-continue to dominate screen time. This perpetuates stereotypes and marginalises alternative narratives, particularly for ethnic minorities who are still too often portrayed as "troublemakers" or secondary figures.

Hall's exploration of cultural hybridity and power dynamics speaks directly to the lived experience of bicultural individuals. His work recognises the tension between celebrating cultural plurality and resisting dominant cultural hegemony. These dynamics are echoed in Half and Half (O'Hearn, 1998), particularly in Garret Hongo's chapter Lost in Place, which explores how transitioning from a culturally rich environment to a more homogenous one can result in alienation and internalised conflict.

In summary, Stuart Hall's theories provide crucial insights into how identity is constructed, represented, and perceived. For designers, his work offers a framework for creating inclusive and culturally sensitive visual narratives. His Reception and Representation theories remind us that media and design do not operate in a vacuum: they shape and are shaped by power structures, cultural norms, and audience interpretation. By embracing these theories, designers can challenge biases, amplify marginalised voices, and celebrate the richness of bicultural experiences.

Representation of Biculturalism in Film

Biculturalism is most effectively expressed through storytelling. Film uses visuals and dialogue to convey emotion and narrative, enabling audiences to connect deeply with characters as they navigate cultural complexity from beginning to end.

Biculturalism is a central theme in both Moscow on the Hudson (Paul Mazursky, 1984) and My Big Fat Greek Wedding (Joel Zwick, 2002). Each film explores how characters manage their cultural identities within hybrid or foreign environments. While both highlight the tensions and reconciliations inherent in bicultural experiences, they approach the subject from distinct cultural and narrative perspectives.

In Moscow on the Hudson, Vladimir Ivanoff, a Russian saxophonist, defects to the United States during a circus trip to New York City, leaving behind his family and life in the Soviet Union. The film explores Vladimir's emotional and practical challenges as he adapts to American society-language barriers, economic instability, loneliness-while simultaneously building friendships with other immigrants who share their migration stories. These shared experiences represent a collective immigrant narrative and emphasize how cultural diversity can foster empathy and connection. Vladimir remarks, "Everybody I meet is from somewhere else," to which his love interest, Maria, responds, "This is America." This dialogue captures the essence of American multiculturalism and underscores the diverse social fabric created through immigration. The film also uses such moments to reflect on the blending of global influences, as illustrated by Vladimir's comment about buying his "first pair of American shoes - they were made in Italy," highlighting both his gradual adjustment and the irony of globalization.

Moscow on the Hudson (Paul Mazursky, 1984)

Paul Mazursky emphasizes these themes through Vladimir's narration, which underscores the emotional and symbolic significance of various events in his journey. The film draws a stark contrast between the oppressive atmosphere of Soviet Russia and the chaotic but liberating nature of American life. This duality is also evident in Vladimir's internal conflict-he experiences homesickness and displacement, admitting, "In the middle of the night I sit up straight and wonder where I am," which encapsulates the emotional turmoil of starting over in a foreign land.

One pivotal scene involves Maria's naturalization ceremony. During the oath, new citizens are told to abandon former allegiances and fully embrace an American identity: "You will no longer be a hyphenated American." This monologue critiques the expectation that immigrants must erase their roots to be accepted. Maria complies, willingly leaving behind her Italian heritage, whereas Vladimir retains his Russian identity while gradually adopting American cultural norms. His journey ultimately reflects the formation of a bicultural identity, as opposed to complete assimilation.

In contrast, My Big Fat Greek Wedding centers on Toula Portokalos, a first-generation Greek-American woman who negotiates the tension between her family's cultural expectations and her personal aspirations. The screenplay, written by lead actress Nia Vardalos, is based on her own experiences and uses exaggerated cultural stereotypes for comedic effect. Toula's family expects her to "marry Greek boys, make Greek babies, and feed everyone till the day we die." Her desire to pursue education and independence leads to both familial conflict and self-discovery.

The film uses humour to explore bicultural tension within family life. Toula's embarrassment about her heritage, combined with her desire to fit into mainstream American society, reflects her internal conflict. Meanwhile, her romantic relationship with Ian, a non-Greek American, becomes a site of cultural compromise. Ian's willingness to learn Greek and be baptized into the Orthodox Church represents the possibility of harmonizing different cultures. Rather than rejecting one identity for another, the film promotes cultural blending.

My Big Fat Greek Wedding (Joel Zwick, 2002)

Unlike Moscow on the Hudson, which focuses on adult immigration and its isolating effects, My Big Fat Greek Wedding deals with biculturalism from a generational perspective. Toula's experience reflects the challenges of growing up between two cultures, navigating feelings of alienation, and ultimately finding a balance between her Greek roots and American surroundings. The familial and communal aspects of her journey contrast Vladimir's more solitary path of self-discovery.

Tonally, the two films also differ. Moscow on the Hudson is a comedy-drama with a more reflective tone, examining the psychological and emotional weight of cultural dislocation, especially under the historical shadow of Soviet oppression. In contrast, My Big Fat Greek Wedding leans into light-heartedness, using humour to normalize and celebrate bicultural experiences.

From a production standpoint, films use different cinematic techniques to enhance their themes. In Moscow on the Hudson, Paul Mazursky employs lighting, dialogue, and mise-en-scène to emphasize cultural contrasts and emotional depth. The cold, muted tones of Soviet Russia evoke repression and uniformity, while the bright, wide-angle shots of New York convey both opportunity and chaos. Close-ups of Vladimir during vulnerable moments highlight his emotional journey, especially during scenes of frustration or cultural misunderstanding.

Language plays a critical role in illustrating the immigrant experience. The command, "You're in America, speak English," by Lionel Witherspoon, reflects the pressure to assimilate and the alienation that language barriers create. Vladimir's use of humour to connect with Lionel represents a turning point in forming cross-cultural bonds. His evolving fluency in English parallels his growing integration into American society.

Music is another key element in Moscow on the Hudson. Vladimir's saxophone represents his Russian identity and his gradual transformation. As his music shifts from traditional melodies to jazz, it reflects his adaptation. When criticized for not mastering jazz, Vladimir experiences a breakdown, symbolizing the internal conflict between embracing a new identity and retaining his past. His defiance in continuing to play despite complaints signifies resilience and the assertion of his bicultural identity.

In My Big Fat Greek Wedding, humour and cultural references serve to bridge gaps rather than highlight struggles. Toula's father, Gus, insists that "every word comes from Greek," turning this belief into a running gag. His cultural pride contrasts with Ian's outsider status, but the latter's patience and respect allow him to be accepted. The soundtrack, rich with traditional Greek music, reinforces the dominance of Greek culture in family life, while its absence during Toula's solitary moments underscores her feeling of disconnection from both cultures.

In conclusion, Moscow on the Hudson and My Big Fat Greek Wedding present two contrasting yet complementary portrayals of biculturalism. While the former explores displacement and identity reconstruction through a serious and introspective lens, the latter celebrates cultural hybridity within a familial and humorous context. Both films reflect the diverse ways in which bicultural identities are formed, negotiated, and lived, offering valuable insights into the immigrant experience in multicultural societies.

Celebrating Identity Through Design - Artistic Expression of Bicultural Identity

The increasing rate of migration has a positive correlation with children being raised in multicultural backgrounds. Therefore, expression of multicultural backgrounds may be a necessary step forward within design practices. Designers may be required to engage with bicultural themes, and design innovative solutions to express complex cultural identities.

Design is a means to create dialogue, and from my research I can conclude that bicultural design is sparce and uncommon to find. Although many artists and designers have multicultural backgrounds, it is rare for them to express it directly through their work.

One of the artists that openly addressed her bicultural experience was Arwa Abouon, who used photography to express her bicultural identity. Her photographs usually revolve around her family and heritage and are both humorous and beautiful. In an interview with Valerie Behiery (a historian of Islamic arts), Abouon discusses her upbringing, as a Libyan-Canadian, and her works. She explains that family is a strong and important theme in her work due to her parents instilling strong family values in her. She elaborates on her love for photography that stems from her parents teaching her about her extended family, who remained in Libya whilst they moved away to Canada, through photographs. This bridged the gap between her family feeling like strangers when they could finally meet as she knew who everyone wasthrough stories and documentations. The influence of her Canadian upbringing impacts on her imagery. They are not mainstream depiction of Islam. She states "The 'Islam' you see in the work is the Islam of my household.," emphasising how personal and intimate her work is to her experience.

A work which stands out from her collections in the Untitled from The Generation Series (Mother,Daughter, 2004, 2006). This piece consists of two 44 x 80" digital prints. The prints portray Abouon and her mother in a prayer garment looking at each other. This is a beautiful print having a lot of cultural, religious, and personal meaning.

In the photograph, the mother and daughter are wearing a patterned chador, which blends in with the background and covers their entire bodies. The repetitive patterned fabric is contrasted with the only parts of their body that are not covered: their face and hands. This contrast draws the viewers gaze to their hands and faces, drawing attention to the maturity of the mother and the youthfulness of the daughter, outlining the generational significance and family bond between the two women. The identical garment and position may also signify Abouon's close relationship and influence drawn from her parents.

This set of photographs draws attention to their Muslim spirituality and puts into perspective some of the values learnt through her religion. In an interview with Valerie Behiery, Abouon defined her identity in a hierarchal way.

"First of all, I am Muslim. When I describe myself, I put it in order: Muslim, Libyan, Canadian. Here I'm Libyan, but when I go to Libya, I'm Canadian," Abouon stated in an interview.

The choice to portray herself and her mother in Islamic clothing thus had high importance. Islamic garments are the first unmistakable sign of her identity, and, based on her own description, are an essential, if not the most important, part of her identity. She also creates distance between each of her 'home countries.' She confesses that in each country she describes herself as the other. In Canada she is Libyan, as she isn't entirely Canadian. It distinguishes herself from others and creates distance. This distance is also present in her prints. As they are two separate prints, there is a void around them. This void, and distance between her and her mother, can signify the difference the two women have. The differences in upbringing due to the locational factors (moving from Libya to Canada), means that although her mother brought her up in culture and faith, there is still distance between them due to the external factors. The identical composition of the two pieces creates a feeling of unity between the two women and eliminates the expected positions of power that can often occur between parents and children. Both women look at each other with support, understanding and respect. In the context of Islam, a veil is seen as a sign of devotion, spirituality, and modesty. They are garments worn by women to encourage modesty, as women cover their bodies and men lower their gaze. Hijabs are considered a 'requirement,' but in the words of the Qu'ran, "there is no compulsion in religion"(verse 256 of Surah Al-Baqarah), meaning Muslims have a choice in their religious practice. Muslim author Amal Awad says that having the "Western privilege" means being able to make that choice, as women in predominantly Muslim countries may not experience the same choice. Abouon has that choice, and although she decided to wear veils in her photographs to be easily identified as a Muslim, it is not always part of her daily life. On the contrary, A Muslim journalist Shazma Gaffoor explained that her decision to wear a Hijab when she was 20 felt "liberating". She explained the experience is freeing. It puts her in control of what people say to her. She describes it as a "veil of respect" as it ensured that people who interact with her are respectful and do not objectify her, like they had done prior to her wearing a Hijab. In relation to Abouon's works, it could also be used as a tool to ensure respect and control the viewer's narrative through dematerialising the figures of the women with the pattern of the garment blending with the background.

Islamic art and aesthetic are often described by art historians with the terms "textile metaphor" or "textile mentality" due to the high importance of textiles in Islam. Textile artifacts were prized, collected, and served as diplomatic gifts. Textiles are also important in households, where a household's main, or only, furnishings involves rugs, pillows, and bags. Furthermore, the Ka'ba, considered the holiest site in Islam, is draped in a monumental black veil known as the kiswa, decorated with bands of ornate gold and silver embroidered text and pattern, which may have been reflected in the draped fabric in the background. These prints were displayed in a Western Gallery, increasing the visibility of Islam in the West. They celebrate her identity, religion, and culture, yet the blended fabrics elevates Islam beyond the focus on the Hijab. It focuses on the individuals in the garments and not the clothing itself.

Kanae Yamamoto is an example of a designer who's taken influence from other cultures to innovate new artistic movements. The article "Influence of 'The Studio' on Kanae Yamamoto: Founder of Sosaku Hanga Movement - Creative Printmaking" examines how the British art magazine The Studio impacted Kanae Yamamoto's artistic development and his role in establishing the Sosaku Hanga (Creative Print) movement in early 20th-century Japan. Yamamoto strived away from traditional ukiyo-e prints, which involved a division of labor among painters, engravers, and printers; instead, he emphasized the artist's personal involvement in every stage of printmaking, from design to final print. This philosophy is exemplified in his 1904 woodblock print "Gyofu (Fisherman: 漁夫, 1904)." The image depicts a fisherman, occupying majority of the composition, facing away from the viewer. The humble pose reflects his class. The thick lines convey structural integrity, perhaps depicting the physicality of the fisherman's work or reiterating his strong presence. Unlike traditional ukiyo-e prints, the figure isn't glamorised or idealised; the figure portrays an authentic depiction of a fisherman. The image conveys the fisherman's connection to nature through the limited palette and earthy tones. The rough textures further imitate this natural and authentic focus. The image expresses respect for the fisherman and his work, capturing the reality rather than distorting it.

Yamamoto, K. (1904), Hashimoto, O. (1904) [Woodblock print]. Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. Available at: https://collections.mfa.org/objects/267407 (Accessed: 25 January 2025).

The print reflects Russian influence through the subject matter of the image. During his travels in Russia, Yamamoto was exposed to peasant art with focus on the lives and struggles of ordinary people. Russian realist art often celebrated the dignity and resilience of the working class. Gyofu, depicts a lone fisherman, which resonates with this Russian focus but is uncommon in traditional Japanese art. Japanese art focused on beauty, elites and landscapes. His artistic ideals also changed as he strived to make handmade art forms that valued self-expression. It was significant that Gyofu was designed, printed and carved by Yamamoto as that moved away from Japan's ukiyo-e tradition and instead mirrors the ethos of Russian folk art, which often emphasised the artisan's intimate connection to their work. Yamamoto's creative development thus reflected Leo Tolstoy's beliefs of 'freethinking'.

Leo Tolstoy, a Russian writer who is regarded as one of the most influential authors, said "Freethinkers are those who are willing to use their minds without prejudice and without fearing to understand things that clash with their own customs, privileges, or beliefs. This state of mind is not common, but it is essential for right thinking."

This mindset not only informed Yamamoto's pursuit into merging Japanese art with Russian art, but it also relates to biculturalism which often entails reconciling values, traditions, and beliefs. Tolstoy's freethinking mindset embodies the ideal process to understanding and resolving conflicts through openness to understanding, lack of prejudice, and courage to challenge deeply ingrained customs. It thus enables individuals to adopt and adapt elements from both cultures to form a more integrated identity, and an enriched perspective using both influences. In summary, Yamamoto's ability to embrace a foreign perspective without rejecting traditional Japanese print making reflects what a harmonious bicultural experience entails. Although his roots are not Russian, his narrative entails the importance of other cultures in relation to design and innovation.

Conclusion

In conclusion, biculturalism is shaped by dynamic and complex themes, yet it remains a powerful way of understanding oneself and embracing the influence of multiple cultures. This process benefits an individual's cognitive abilities, enabling a broader and more nuanced comprehension of the world. Biculturalism, however, extends beyond mere heritage or bloodlines. As demonstrated by the life and work of Yamamoto, anyone can adopt a bicultural perspective through openness and "freethinking," as emphasized by Leo Tolstoy. Such openness is especially crucial in today's interconnected world, where embracing diverse cultural influences can foster deeper understanding and mutual respect between communities and nations. This cultural exchange holds the potential to encourage world peace by addressing the root causes of conflicts through dialogue and empathy.

This paper has explored the relationship between immigration and biculturalism, as well as its impact on individual experiences, but the scope of these ideas extends further. For instance, Stuart Hall's insights into cultural politics highlight how Western political systems often marginalize minority communities, creating ideological struggles.

One central theme of this paper is "self-expression," which plays a vital role in shaping an individual's identity and fostering connection with others. Although works on the bicultural experience are limited, they hold immense potential for sparking conversations and building bridges of understanding. Creative expression is a powerful tool for reaching diverse audiences. Artists, producers, and designers have a unique ability to bring bicultural experiences to the forefront, turning what is often perceived as a niche or isolated personal struggle into a shared and empowering narrative. By sharing these stories, individuals can feel less alienated and more confident in expressing their perspectives, contributing to their mental well-being and enriching society.

The contributions of bicultural individuals extend beyond personal expression. As Zechenter has noted, bicultural individuals often possess enhanced problem-solving skills and a broader worldview influenced by multiple cultures. A notable example is Henry Gotlib, whose intergration into the British art scene allowed him to introduce and inspire others with Polish Avant-Garde concepts. Such cultural exchanges thrive when both sides engage in mutual dialogue, with respect and openness rather than enforcement. History demonstrates the dangers of imposing cultural views, as seen in the catastrophic conflicts of World War II. Instead, fostering respectful cultural dialogue can promote community development, mutual learning, and broader understanding.

For designers, this dialogue is particularly crucial. Stuart Hall's Reception Theory underscores the importance of understanding the cultural contexts that shape how audiences interpret designs. Designers must consider how their work interacts with diverse cultural identities and create designs that are accessible and resonant for audiences influenced by multiple cultures. This requires balancing cultural sensitivity with the clarity needed for effective communication. Ultimately, biculturalism offers invaluable insights into identity, community, and creativity. By embracing the diversity of perspectives that bicultural individuals bring, society can cultivate deeper connections, encourage innovation, and build a future defined by mutual understanding and respect.

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